The rapid proliferation of social media platforms globally, and particularly in Mainland China, has transformed communication, information dissemination, and social interaction. While initial research on digital divides primarily focused on access to technology, a more nuanced understanding now recognizes disparities in usage patterns. This article investigates the complex interplay of demographic factors and personality traits in shaping six distinct types of social media usage divides within Mainland China. Drawing on existing literature, we propose a framework that moves beyond traditional access-based divides to explore how socioeconomic status, age, gender, and geographical location, alongside individual personality characteristics, contribute to varied engagement with social media for purposes such as social interaction, news consumption, content creation, and political participation. By identifying these multifaceted divides, this research aims to provide a comprehensive perspective on digital inequality in a unique socio-political context, offering insights for policy interventions and platform design to foster more equitable digital engagement.

Social media usage, usage divides, Mainland China, demographics, personality traits, user archetypes, digital divide, online engagement, user segmentation

1. Ali, A. H. (2011). The power of social media in developing nations: New tools for closing the global digital divide and beyond. Harvard Human Rights Journal, 24, 185.

2. Asendorpf, J. B., & Wilpers, S. (1998). Personality effects on social relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6), 1531–1544.

3. Bakker, T. P., & De Vreese, C. H. (2011). Good news for the future? Young people, Internet use, and political participation. Communication Research, 38(4), 451–470.

4. Bikson, T. K., & Panis, C. W. (1997). Computers and connectivity: Current trends. In Kiesler, S. (Eds.), Culture of the Internet. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

5. boyd, D. M., & Ellison, N. B. (2007). Social network sites: Definition, history, and scholarship. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 13(1), 210–230.

6. Brake, D. R. (2014). Are we all online content creators now? Web 2.0 and digital divides. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 19(3), 591–609.

7. Brundidge, J., Garrett, R. K., Rojas, H., & Gil de Zúñiga, H. (2014). Political participation and ideological news online:“Differential gains” and “differential losses” in a presidential election cycle. Mass Communication and Society, 17(4), 464–486.

8. Chen, H. T., Chan, M., & Lee, F. L. (2016). Social media use and democratic engagement: A comparative study of Hong Kong, Taiwan, and China. Chinese Journal of Communication, 9(4), 348–366.

9. Chen, W., & Wellman, B. (2004). The global digital divide–within and between countries. IT & Society, 1(7), 39–45.

10. CNNIC. (2016). 2015 Research report on user behaviors on social applications in China.

11. CNNIC. (2017a). 2016 China Internet news market research report.

12. CNNIC. (2017b). 38th statistical survey report on the Internet development.

13. Correa, T., Hinsley, A. W., & De Zuniga, H. G. (2010). Who interacts on the Web?: The intersection of users’ personality and social media use. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(2), 247–253.

14. Fan, B. (2015). 2015 Weibo users development report. Sina Weibo.

15. Fei, X. (1992). From the soil: The foundations of Chinese society: A translation of: Fei Xiatong’s Xiangtu Zhongguo. University of California Press.

16. Fong, M. W. (2009). Digital divide between urban and rural regions in China. The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, 36(1), 1–12.

17. Fu, J. S., & Lee, A. Y. L. (2016). Chinese journalists’ discursive weibo practices in an extended journalistic sphere. Journalism Studies, 17(1), 80–99.

18. Fu, K. W., Chan, C. H., & Chau, M. (2013). Assessing censorship on microblogs in China: Discriminatory keyword analysis and the real-name registration policy. IEEE Internet Computing, 17(3), 42–50.

19. Gallego, A., & Oberski, D. (2012). Personality and political participation: The mediation hypothesis. Political Behavior, 34(3), 425–451.

20. Gil de Zúñiga, H. (2006). Reshaping digital inequality in the European Union: How psychological barriers affect internet adoption rates. Webology, 3(4), 32.

21. Gil de Zúñiga, H., & Diehl, T. (2017). Citizenship, social media, and big data: Current and future research in the social sciences. Social Science Computer Review, 35(1), 3–9.

22. Gil de Zúñiga, H., Diehl, T., Huber, B., & Liu, J. (2017). Personality traits and social media use in 20 countries: How personality relates to frequency of social media use, social media news use, and social media use for social interaction. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 20(9), 540–552.

23. Gil de Zúñiga, H., Jung, N., & Valenzuela, S. (2012). Social media use for news and individuals’ social capital, civic engagement and political participation. Journal of Computer‐Mediated Communication, 17(3), 319–336.

24. Gil de Zúñiga, H., & Liu, J. H. (2017). Second screening politics in the social media sphere: Advancing research on dual screen use in political communication with evidence from 20 countries. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 61(2), 193–219.

25. Goldfarb, A., & Prince, J. (2008). Internet adoption and usage patterns are different: Implications for the digital divide. Information Economics and Policy, 20(1), 2–15.

26. Gunkel, D. J. (2003). Second thoughts: Toward a critique of the digital divide. New Media & Society, 5(4), 499–522.

27. Guo, L. (2017). WeChat as a semipublic alternative sphere: Exploring the use of WeChat among Chinese older adults. International Journal of Communication, 11, 21.

28. Hacker, K. L., & Steiner, R. (2001). Hurdles of access and benefits of usage for Internet communication. Communication Research Reports, 18(4), 399–407.

29. Halpern, D., & Gibbs, J. (2013). Social media as a catalyst for online deliberation? Exploring the affordances of Facebook and YouTube for political expression. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(3), 1159–1168.

30. Hamburger, Y. A., & Ben-Artzi, E. (2000). The relationship between extraversion and neuroticism and the different uses of the internet. Computers in Human Behavior, 16(4), 441–449.

31. Hargittai, E. (2001). Second-level digital divide: Differences in people’s online skills. First Monday, 7(4).

32. Kim, Y., & Chen, H. T. (2016). Social media and online political participation: The mediating role of exposure to cross-cutting and like-minded perspectives. Telematics and Informatics, 33(2), 320–330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2015.08.008

33. Kim, Y., Hsu, S. H., & de Zúñiga, H. G. (2013). Influence of social media use on discussion network heterogeneity and civic engagement: The moderating role of personality traits. Journal of Communication, 63(3), 498–516. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12034

34. Klinger, U., & Svensson, J. (2015). The emergence of network media logic in political communication: A theoretical approach. New Media & Society, 17(8), 1241–1257. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444814522952

35. Krasnova, H., Kolesnikova, E., & Guenther, O. (2009, June). “It won’t happen to me!”: Self-disclosure in online social networks. Americas Conference on Information Systems (AMCIS), San Francisco, CA.

36. Lu, Y. (2013). New media and Chinese society. China Renmin University Press.

37. Lu, Y., & Qiu, J. L. (2013). Political communication in the Chinese blogosphere: A case study of the Nanjing Massacre commemoration on Tianya. China Information, 27(2), 199–219. https://doi.org/10.1177/0920203X13485977

38. Ma, Z. (2014). Does micro-blogging promote civic participation in China? New Media & Society, 18(8), 1415–1435. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444814550105

39. Macafee, T., & De Simone, J. J. (2012). Killing the bill online? Pathways to young people's protest engagement via social media. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15(11), 579–584. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2012.0153

40. McClurg, S. D. (2003). Social networks and political participation: The role of social interaction in explaining political participation. Political Research Quarterly, 56(4), 449–464. https://doi.org/10.1177/106591290305600407

41. McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T. (1987). Validation of the five-factor model of personality across instruments and observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(1), 81–90. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.1.81

42. McFarland, D. A., & Thomas, R. J. (2006). Bowling young: How youth voluntary associations influence adult political participation. American Sociological Review, 71(3), 401–425. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240607100304

43. Metzger, M. J. (2007). Making sense of credibility on the Web: Models for evaluating online information and recommendations for future research. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 58(13), 2078–2091. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.20672

44. Metzger, M. J., Flanagin, A. J., & Medders, R. B. (2010). Social and heuristic approaches to credibility evaluation online. Journal of Communication, 60(3), 413–439. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2010.01488.x

45. Moeller, J., de Vreese, C., Esser, F., & Kunz, R. (2014). Pathway to political participation: The influence of online and offline news media on internal efficacy and turnout of first-time voters. American Behavioral Scientist, 58(5), 689–700. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764213515220

46. Morris, J. S. (2005). The Fox News factor. Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics, 10(3), 56–79. https://doi.org/10.1177/1081180X05277726

47. Norris, P. (2001). Digital divide: Civic engagement, information poverty, and the Internet worldwide. Cambridge University Press.

48. Pasek, J., More, E., & Romer, D. (2009). Realizing the social Internet? Online social networking meets offline civic engagement. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 6(3–4), 197–215. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331680902996403

49. Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 19, pp. 123–205). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60214-2

50. Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. Simon & Schuster.

51. Rains, S. A. (2007). The impact of anonymity on perceptions of source credibility and influence in computer-mediated group communication: A test of two competing hypotheses. Communication Research, 34(1), 100–125. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650206296084

52. Rainie, L., & Wellman, B. (2012). Networked: The new social operating system. MIT Press.

53. Rojas, H., Shah, D. V., & Faber, R. J. (1996). For the good of others: Censorship and the third-person effect. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 8(2), 163–186. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/8.2.163

54. Shah, D. V., Kwak, N., & Holbert, R. L. (2001). “Connecting” and “disconnecting” with civic life: Patterns of Internet use and the production of social capital. Political Communication, 18(2), 141–162. https://doi.org/10.1080/105846001750322952

55. Shah, D. V., McLeod, J. M., & Yoon, S. H. (2001). Communication, context, and community: An exploration of print, broadcast, and Internet influences. Communication Research, 28(4), 464–506. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365001028004005

56. Shirky, C. (2008). Here comes everybody: The power of organizing without organizations. Penguin Press.

57. Smith, A. (2013). Civic engagement in the digital age. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2013/04/25/civic-engagement-in-the-digital-age/

58. Stromer-Galley, J. (2004). Interactivity-as-product and interactivity-as-process. The Information Society, 20(5), 391–394. https://doi.org/10.1080/01972240490508090

59. Sunstein, C. R. (2007). Republic.com 2.0. Princeton University Press.

60. Tufekci, Z., & Wilson, C. (2012). Social media and the decision to participate in political protest: Observations from Tahrir Square. Journal of Communication, 62(2), 363–379. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2012.01629.x

61. Vaccari, C., & Valeriani, A. (2015). Follow the leader! Direct and indirect flows of political communication during the 2013 Italian general election campaign. New Media & Society, 17(7), 1025–1042. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444813511038

62. Valenzuela, S., Park, N., & Kee, K. F. (2009). Is there social capital in a social network site?: Facebook use and college students’ life satisfaction, trust, and participation. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 14(4), 875–901. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2009.01474.x

63. Valenzuela, S., Arriagada, A., & Scherman, A. (2012). The social media basis of youth protest behavior: The case of Chile. Journal of Communication, 62(2), 299–314. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2012.01635.x

64. Van Dijk, J. (2006). The network society: Social aspects of new media (2nd ed.). Sage Publications.

65. Van Dijk, J. (2020). The digital divide. Polity Press.

66. Vromen, A. (2017). Digital citizenship and political engagement: The challenge from online campaigning and advocacy organisations. Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-52392-2

67. Vromen, A., Xenos, M. A., & Loader, B. D. (2015). Young people, social media and connective action: From organisational maintenance to everyday political talk. Journal of Youth Studies, 18(1), 80–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2014.933198

68. Wellman, B., Haase, A. Q., Witte, J., & Hampton, K. (2001). Does the Internet increase, decrease, or supplement social capital? Social networks, participation, and community commitment. American Behavioral Scientist, 45(3), 436–455. https://doi.org/10.1177/00027640121957286

69. West, D. M. (2005). Digital government: Technology and public sector performance. Princeton University Press.

70. Wright, S. (2012). From ‘third place’ to ‘third space’: Everyday political talk in non-political online spaces. Politics, 32(2), 77–89. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9256.2012.01438.x

71. Xenos, M., Vromen, A., & Loader, B. D. (2014). The great equalizer? Patterns of social media use and youth political engagement in three advanced democracies. Information, Communication & Society, 17(2), 151–167. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2013.871318

72. Yamamoto, M., Kushin, M. J., & Dalisay, F. (2015). Social media and mobiles as political mobilization forces for young adults: Examining the moderating role of online political messaging. Mass Communication and Society, 18(2), 173–193. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2014.933850

73. Zaller, J. (1992). The nature and origins of mass opinion. Cambridge University Press.